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“宽容悖论”与“压制的宽容”


长久以来,我一直在提醒人们:我们现在正生活在这样一篇的文章的逻辑之下,文章的名字是《压制的宽容》(Repressive Tolerance),作者是新马克思主义思想家赫伯特·马尔库塞(Herbert Marcuse)。这篇文章对当代的觉悟左派(Woke left)有着极其深远的影响,塑造了当代觉悟左派基本的思维方式和道德观念。知道了这一点,我们就能理解发生在当代西方社会的许多事件。 比方说,CNN最近发表的一篇文章中写到:“Antifa通过暴力实现和平”,这种观点其实就是“压制的宽容”的简化表述。我希望告诉大家的是, 觉悟左派实际上是《压制的宽容》和后现代主义结合的产物,新马克思主义的信条和后现代主义的认识论共同造就了觉悟左派。此前我一直建议人们去读这本书,但是他们总告诉我说太难了读不下去。既然如此,那我就来带着大家读一读这篇文章。在读的过程中,我会附加一些评论,好让大家更清晰地理解这篇文章到底在说什么。


《压制的宽容》写于1965年,正值1967年-1969年暴力风波的前夕,彼时马尔库塞是左翼圈子里的当红人物。这篇文章原本属于独立的章节,出现在一本名为《纯粹宽容批判》(A Critique of Pure Tolerance)的书中,因此篇幅其实很长,有足足42页,要花几个小时才能读完,因此我将把这篇文章拆分成四个部分,好帮助大家明白这篇文章的内容,理解它的逻辑。我的核心观点是这样的:在2020所发生的暴力事件和1967年-1969年所发生的暴力事件背后,是相同的思维方式,相同的行为动机,相同的政治信念。要理解这一切,就需要理解《压制的宽容》一文。


不过在开始之前,我想我也许需要告诉你一些背景知识:首先,我想告诉大家,《压制的宽容》这篇文章,其实在尝试解决卡尔·波普的“宽容悖论”(paradox of intolerance)—卡尔·波普当年有感于纳粹主义和斯大林主义的兴起,便提出了“宽容悖论”。其次,我这里提到的新马克思主义,又称“文化马克思主义”,是指法兰克福学院的批评理论哲学思想。法兰克福学院成立于20世纪10年代末20年代初,创始人则是一群幻灭的马克思主义者,他们看到俄国的布什维克革命成功了,其他国家的共产革命却失败了,马克思的预言并没有实现,柏林和伦敦的工人并没有掀起革命,匈牙利的革命也没有成功,于是就这群马克思主义者,像瓦尔特·本雅明,麦克斯·霍克海默等,就组建了法兰克福学院。这些人大都认为,马克思的预言之所以未能实现,是因为文化因素比经济因素更为重要,认为马克思主义需要将中心转移到文化上来,他们还认为,西方社会中的那些为人们所尊崇的思想,例如自由,理性,人权这些观念,迷惑了人民群众的视线,使其丧失了革命觉悟。这就是马尔库塞写下《压制的宽容》时的大致背景。


卡尔·波普的“宽容悖论”首见于在他的《开放世界及其敌人》,在这篇文章里,波普列举出了自由社会所必须面对的诸多悖论(不过这些悖论大都不见于正文,而是以脚注出现的,“宽容悖论”就出现第七章的脚注里)。在此,波普写到:


”较少人知道的,是宽容的悖论:无限制的宽容一定会导致宽容消失。如果我们把无限制的宽容延伸至不宽容之人,不去捍卫一个宽容的社会,任其遭受不宽容之人的打击,那么宽容者反而会被消灭,宽容本身也将不复存在。


这就是宽容悖论,这也是我们在和平时期也要维持军队的原因,因为假如一个国家召集了军队,准备发动战争,那么那些没有军队,没有备战的国家就会被其征服。在社会中也是一样,即便你生活在一个非常安全的社会,你还是得拥有基本的警惕性,学会一些基本的自卫技巧,否则你就会吃亏。


波普所描述的“宽容悖论”就是这样一种情况,现在我们再接着往下读:


“在这里,我并不是说一定要压制那些主张不宽容的言论,在我们仍能用理性观点对其反驳,用舆论对其制约之时,压制是最不明智的做法。


但我们应该有权宣称,在必要的时候,我们可以压制那些不宽容者,哪怕是用武力。因为很多时候,这些极端主义者根本不就不打算和你理性讨论,而打算否定理性讨论本身;他们可能会禁止自己的信徒聆听他人的理性论点,斥其为异端邪说,并教导追随者以枪或拳头回应讨论。所以我们有权宣称:以宽容之名,我们有权利不去容忍不宽容之人。


因此,我们应该宣布:任何宣扬不宽容的的运动都将自己置在了法律的对立面,对于那些煽动偏狭,鼓吹迫害之人,我们应该把他们当作犯罪分子对待,就和对那些教唆谋杀,引诱绑架,鼓动恢复奴隶贸易的人一样。”


Less well known is the paradox of tolerance: Unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance. If we extend unlimited tolerance even to those who are intolerant, if we are not prepared to defend a tolerant society against the onslaught of the intolerant, then the tolerant will be destroyed, and tolerance with them.—In this formulation, I do not imply, for instance, that we should always suppress the utterance of intolerant philosophies; as long as we can counter them by rational argument and keep them in check by public opinion, suppression would certainly be most unwise.


But we should claim the right to suppress them if necessary even by force; for it may easily turn out that they are not prepared to meet us on the level of rational argument, but begin by denouncing all argument; they may forbid their followers to listen to rational argument, because it is deceptive, and teach them to answer arguments by the use of their fists or pistols. We should therefore claim, in the name of tolerance, the right not to tolerate the intolerant.


We should claim that any movement preaching intolerance places itself outside the law and we should consider incitement to intolerance and persecution as criminal, in the same way as we should consider incitement to murder, or to kidnapping, or to the revival of the slave trade, as criminal.


我们可以看到,波普实际上在说:在自由社会中,如果有一群人信奉某种不宽容的意识形态,并且掀起了一场不宽容的运动,就会造成很严重的问题。在这种情况下,我们有着不宽容的权利。这些人可能会禁止己方信徒听取他人的观点,拒绝与其它的思想流派公平竞争,把异己的观点称为异端邪说,说它们代表了魔鬼的诱惑,男权的压迫,白人的霸权,等等,并且教自己的追随者用暴力手段对待它们。为了捍卫宽容的社会,波普说道,我们必须保有不宽容的权利。他也说道,在公共舆论与理性辩论仍能制约这些不宽容的思想的时候,压制是一种最不明智的选择。但是,如果这种制约失效了,我们就必须做好不宽容的准备,不论是对白人至上主义(是真正的白人至上主义,而不是给人贴的标签),还是新纳粹主义,还是觉悟运动(The woke movement)。觉悟运动不愿意与人理性辩论,无法被舆论制约,并且贼喊捉贼地把异己观念都称为“不宽容观点”,因此完全符合波普的定义。波普在这里谈论的问题的确很重要,这也是每个自由社会所必须面对的。


马尔库塞也在思考这些问题,可是他却给了很不一样的答案。毫不夸张地说,马尔库塞的论点,简而言之,就是“左翼运动,不论有多么暴力,都必须得到宽容;右翼运动,哪怕不涉及暴力,也必须不被宽容,甚至应该成为暴力的对象”。他相信,右翼运动,都是些维护现状的运动,都一定会走向法西斯主义,因此,哪怕他们成了暴力的对象也是活该。我在接下来会把他的原文读给大家听,由于文章过长,我打算把它拆分成四个部分。你们很就会发现,马尔库塞其实是脱离了波普的预设情景,自己创造了一个新的,不对称的游戏规则,在这套规则里,他自己的那一方可以为所欲为,想不宽容就不宽容,而别人的一方做什么都是不对的,都是不可容忍的。


在文章的开头,马尔库塞写道:


“本文考察了宽容这一思想在当下高度发展的工业社会中的现状。本文的结论是:要实现宽容这一目标,就应该不宽容主流的行为,态度和观念;就应该更宽容那些非法的,受压制的行为,态度和观念。换句话说,今日的宽容又回到了其在现代之初原本的模样——一个具有偏袒性的目标,一个起到颠覆和破坏作用的,使人解放的观念和实践。相反,在当今社会中得到实践的所谓的宽容,很大程度上是为压迫服务的。


THIS essay examines the idea of tolerance in our advanced industrial society. The conclusion reached is that the realization of the objective of tolerance would call for intolerance toward prevailing policies, attitudes, opinions, and the extension of tolerance to policies, attitudes, and opinions which are outlawed or suppressed. In other words, today tolerance appears again as what it was in its origins, at the beginning of the modern period–a partisan goal, a subversive liberating notion and practice. Conversely, what is proclaimed and practiced as tolerance today, is in many of its most effective manifestations serving the cause of oppression.


马尔库塞在一开头就给出了他的结论。我们来分析一下,他到底说了什么:他说,为了实现宽容,我们应该不宽容主流的行为,态度和观念;就应该更宽容那些非法的,受压制的行为,态度和观念。这里其实就已经能看到不对称性了,马尔库塞基本上是在说,现有的社会是非常不宽容的,因此我们必须打破现有的秩序,用另一套东西取而代之。同时,我们要宽容那些我们现在不宽容的事物。所以马尔库塞在文章开头下结论的时候的,就已经在采用双重标准了。像2021年1月6号的首都事件,就被当作“本土恐怖主义”、“暴动”、“政变”、“谋反”,需要立刻出台紧急法案来控制局势,而BLM成员在连续几个月的打砸抢后依然可以被保释出狱,就连新冠的疾控政策也有两套不一样的标准,如果是普通人聚集起来,那么他们就就违反了疾控政策,可如果是BLM聚众骚乱,他们就可以畅行无阻,毕竟BLM有90%都是和平示威,只有7%的暴力,财产损失也只有200亿美元。按马尔库塞的说法,社会必须宽容BLM的骚乱,而右翼的一切行为都不能宽容。1月6号的首都事件算是比较极端的例子了,但是还不限于此,哪怕仅仅是在Parlor这样的平台(这些人说Parlor上的言论导致了首都事件,但这并不符合事实)上交流也不行。


马尔库塞继续写道:


今日的宽容又回到了其在现代之初原本的模样——一个具有偏袒性的目标,一个起到颠覆和破坏作用的,使人解放的观念和实践。相反,在当今社会中得到实践的所谓的宽容,很大程度上是为压迫服务的。


他意思很明确,印证了我的说法,显然,我在这里并没有曲解他的话。他说1965的社会是一个压迫式的社会(他说的也许有些道理,尤其是在民权和种族方面,这些压迫是需要被解决的),他还说我们需要重新定义宽容,使其成为“一个具有偏袒性的目标,一个起到颠覆和破坏作用的,使人解放的观念和实践”


接下的这一段也相当重要,他写道:


本文作者很清楚,在当下的世界,任何现存的权力机构和政府都无法将这种使人解放的宽容变成现实,但他相信,知识分子有责任和义务去回忆和保存那些现在已经成为乌托邦幻想的历史可能——他必须打破压迫的坚实性,以此打开可以使社会可以被真实地认识的精神空间。


The author is fully aware that, at present, no power, no authority, no government exists which would translate liberating tolerance into practice, but he believes that it is the task and duty of the intellectual to recall and preserve historical possibilities which seem to have become utopian possibilities–that it is his task to break the concreteness of oppression in order to open the mental space in which this society can be recognized as what it is and does.


这里需要解释的很多,首先,他说能使这种“使人解放的宽容”(其实就是双重标准)变成现实的政府已经不存在了,但是知识分子有责任使其变成现实,为此,他们需要“回忆和保存那些现在已经成为乌托邦幻想的历史可能”。读到这里,我们应该停下来想想,马尔库塞,一个新马克思主义者,所说的“历史可能”到底是什么呢?它意味着人们可以从资本主义和自由主义秩序下摆脱出来,然后建立马克思所预想的共产主义天堂,一个完全解放了的社会。按照马克思的说法,资本主义发展到了晚期阶段,就会被社会主义取代,国家会接管一切,但是每个人都会很平等,这种情况持续一段时间之后,人们会意识到国家是多余的,然后神奇地步入共产主义人间天堂。所谓的“现在已经成为乌托邦幻想的历史可能”讲的就是这个东西,这也是马尔库塞的理想所在。紧接着,他又说他必须“打破压迫的坚实性”,也就是说社会上充满了坚实的压迫,政府,警察等等都在压迫群众,知识分子则需要打开“使社会可以被真实地认识的精神空间”。找一个社会,告诉人们这个社会就是垃圾,压迫和不宽容无所不在,这就是批判理论的目标,因为当人们开始憎恶自己的社会,就会想着去闹革命,去追求“现已成为乌托邦幻想的历史可能”了。


在开头的两段中,马尔库塞宣称,对于宽容我们应该采取双重标准,要宽容非法的事物,以使人们从自由主义秩序和资本主义制度中解放出来,奔向“现已成为乌托邦幻想的历史可能”,这样就可以实现批判的革命。现在我们再回到原文:


Tolerance is an end in itself. The elimination of violence, and the reduction of suppression to the extent required for protecting man and animals from cruelty and aggression are preconditions for the creation of a humane society. Such a society does not yet exist; progress toward it is perhaps more than before arrested by violence and suppression on a global scale. As deterrents against nuclear war, as police action against subversion, as technical aid in the fight against imperialism and communism, as methods of pacification in neo-colonial massacres, violence and suppression are promulgated, practiced, and defended by democratic and authoritarian governments alike, and the people subjected to these governments are educated to sustain such practices as necessary for the preservation of the status quo. Tolerance is extended to policies, conditions, and modes of behavior which should not be tolerated because they are impeding, if not destroying, the chances of creating an existence without fear and misery.


这也是很重要的一段。我们先来做一个简单的总结,在这一段文字中,马尔库塞描述了当时发生的许多糟糕的事情,他的说法并非毫无根据,但是有着批评理论家的典型特征,那就是列举出悲惨的现状,却不给出造成这些现状的真实原因,只是把它们笼统地归为政府给群众洗脑的产物,说群众受到了政府的误导,只想着维护现状。当时是60年代,对现状最大的威胁,自然就是共产主义了。他又说:那些不该被宽容的做法、情况和行为方式得到了宽容。考虑到当时的种族问题,这么说其实也有些道理,但是很快他就走偏了,因为他接下来就说,这些事物之所以得到了宽容,是因为它们妨碍了人们去建造一个“没有恐惧和痛苦的世界“。从前文中,我们已经知道,马尔库塞希望去追求“现已成为乌托邦幻想的历史可能”,即那个共产主义人间天堂,而在这里,他又描述了一个“没有恐惧和痛苦的世界“。这同样是做白日梦,有点脑子的人都知道没有恐惧和痛苦的世界是不存在的,只要人有意识,就会感到害怕,就会感到痛苦。总而言之,马尔库塞预想了一个乌托邦,然后说这个乌托邦之所以没有实现,是因为不论是民主社会还是威权社会都在暗中阻碍,因此,人们需要学习马尔库塞的思想,即“使人解放的宽容”。


接下来,马尔库塞又写道:


This sort of tolerance strengthens the tyranny of the majority against which authentic liberals protested. The political locus of tolerance has changed: while it is more or less quietly and constitutionally withdrawn from the opposition, it is made compulsory behavior with respect to established policies. Tolerance is turned from an active into a passive state, from practice to non-practice: laissez-faire the constituted authorities. It is the people who tolerate the government, which in turn tolerates opposition within the framework determined by the constituted authorities.


换句话说,马尔库塞认为,政府欺骗了群众,掩盖了宽容的真实含义,使群众宽容了那些不应宽容的事物,以此维护自己的利益。


马尔库塞继续抱怨道:


Tolerance toward that which is radically evil now appears as good because it serves the cohesion of the whole on the road to affluence or more affluence. The toleration of the systematic moronization of children and adults alike by publicity and propaganda, the release of destructiveness in aggressive driving, the recruitment for and training of special forces, the impotent and benevolent tolerance toward outright deception in merchandizing, waste, and planned obsolescence are not distortions and aberrations, they are the essence of a system which fosters tolerance as a means for perpetuating the struggle for existence and suppressing the alternatives. The authorities in education, morals, and psychology are vociferous against the increase in juvenile delinquency; they are less vociferous against the proud presentation, in word and deed and pictures, of ever more powerful missiles, rockets, bombs–the mature delinquency of a whole civilization.


“对于极端的恶的容忍现在仿佛成了善行,因为它有助于一些人在积累财富的路上对人们进行强迫”。也就是说,在资本主义制度中,资本家能积累财富,而我们每个人都或多或少地参与了资本主义制度,例如工作,买卖,借租之类,在马尔库塞看来,这就是在容忍“极端的恶”。他还说,社会上的教育、道德和心理学权威对青少年犯罪厉声厉色,却对西方文明的犯罪(用导弹、火箭和炸药等)置之不理。显然,马尔库塞想借此抨击西方社会的虚伪,他说西方社会只容忍有利于资本家的战争,却不容忍青少年的犯罪。接下来,他又说西方社会宽容了商品欺诈,浪费,和对旧物的有计划淘汰。这里他说的也不是没有道理,但是紧接着他就说这是因为群众受到了社会的影响,把这些当成了习以为常的事物。我认为这种说法是不对的,因为人们实际上是在投诉商品的质量问题的,而且到了70年代后,许多保障消费者权益的政策也陆续出台了。和之前一样,马尔库塞指出了真实存在的问题,对其进行夸大和抨击,然后做出错误的诊断,想以此为借口颠覆整个现有秩序,批判理论说白了就是这一套东西。


现在,我们将进入更深的层次:


According to a dialectical proposition it is the whole which determines the truth–not in the sense that the whole is prior or superior to its parts, but in the sense that its structure and function determine every particular condition and relation. Thus, within a repressive society, even progressive movements threaten to turn into their opposite to the degree to which they accept the rules of the game. To take a most controversial case: the exercise of political rights (such as voting, letter-writing to the press, to Senators, etc., protest-demonstrations with a priori renunciation of counterviolence) in a society of total administration serves to strengthen this administration by testifying to the existence of democratic liberties which, in reality, have changed their content and lost their effectiveness. In such a case, freedom (of opinion, of assembly, of speech) becomes an instrument for absolving servitude. And yet (and only here the dialectical proposition shows its full intent) the existence. and practice of these liberties remain a precondition for the restoration of their original oppositional function, provided that the effort to transcend their (often self-imposed) limitations is intensified. Generally, the function and value of tolerance depend on the equality prevalent in the society in which tolerance is practiced. Tolerance itself stands subject to overriding criteria: its range and its limits cannot be defined in terms of the respective society. In other words, tolerance is an end in itself only when it is truly universal, practiced by the rulers as well as by the ruled, by the lords as well as by the peasants, by the sheriffs as well as by their victims. And such universal tolerance is possible only when no real or alleged enemy requires in the national interest the education and training of people in military violence and destruction. As long as these conditions do not prevail, the conditions of tolerance are ‘loaded’: they are determined and defined by the institutionalized inequality (which is certainly compatible with constitutional equality), i.e., by the class structure of society. In such a society, tolerance is de facto limited on the dual ground of legalized violence or suppression (police, armed forces, guards of all sorts) and of the privileged position held by the predominant interests and their ‘connections’.


我此前曾经告诉过各位,许多的这一切都能追溯到黑格尔,现在的这句话(According to a dialectical proposition it is the whole which determines the truth–not in the sense that the whole is prior or superior to its parts, but in the sense that its structure and function determine every particular condition and relation.)就是很好的例子,马尔库塞这里说的就是黑格尔的辩证法,在黑格尔辩证法的基础上,马克思建立了辩证唯物主义,而法兰克福学院的这一批(文化)新马克思主义者,他们的辩证法则是通过指出文化的问题和矛盾来推倒现有秩序。马尔库塞想找一个更大的整体,因为他相信,找到这个更大的整体后,人们就会看到现行体制的黑暗和矛盾之处,就会将现行体制推翻,步入一个新的体制,实现人的解放,实现他所说的“使人解放的宽容”,这其实也就是批判理论的“制造问题”(problematizing)。大家应该认识到,这一套思想是来自于“黑格尔—马克思—新马克思”这条线的。紧接着,马尔库塞又写道: “在一个压制式的社会中,即便是进步主义运动,要是他们遵守游戏规则的话,也会走向自己的反面”。 注意!这是很关键的一句话,马尔库塞这里是在说如果我们按照代议制民主的规则行事,遵循自由主义和启蒙理性的话,进步主义也会变成反动主义。这就是我们当下正在目睹的:觉悟左派就是这样做的,他们说自己不会遵循现有的游戏规则,他们说群众从来没有尝试过“真正的共产主义”,共产主义之所以失败,是因为受到了资本主义的腐蚀,是因为民主党窃取了革命果实,是因为遵守游戏规则就会走向自己的反面,而不是因为共产主义本身就是错的。马尔库塞继续写道: 举一个最富争议的例子,在受到全面管控的社会中,如果一个人在行使他的政治权利(例如投票、向媒体和参议员写信、参加事先宣布不会采取暴力的游行示威,等等),那么他其实就是在通过承认现有的民主权利来维护现存的体制,而这些民主权利实际上早已变质,失去了效力。 这又是一处重点,马尔库塞说,如果你参与投票的话,如果你在游行示威时拒绝使用暴力的话,那么你就是在维护现状,维护一个黑暗的体制,要是你想改变现状,打破这个黑暗的体制,你就必须得使用暴力,就像BLM和Antifa那样。在这种情况下,马尔库塞说道,言论自由、思想自由、集会自由反而使人置身在奴役之中。接下来,马尔库塞又说,我们现有的宽容不是真正的,普世的宽容,换句话说,我们必须采取他的双重标准。此外,他还认为,要让社会实现真正的解放,群众对于警察,以及统治阶级的宽容,就应该和警察,军队,以及统治阶级对群众的宽容相对等,这等于是否定了国家需要通过垄断暴力来维持法制和秩序,有明显的无政府主义倾向。马尔库塞说,如何宽容只要没有满足他的这些标准,就是在参与压迫,维护既得利益。


接下来,马尔库塞写道:


These background limitations of tolerance are normally prior to the explicit and judicial limitations as defined by the courts, custom, governments, etc. (for example, ‘clear and present danger’, threat to national security, heresy). Within the framework of such a social structure, tolerance can be safely practiced and proclaimed. It is of two kinds:


1.the passive toleration of entrenched and established attitudes and ideas even if their damaging effect on man and nature is evident, and


2.the active, official tolerance granted to the Right as well as to the Left, to movements of aggression as well as to movements of peace, to the party of hate as well as to that of humanity I call this non-partisan tolerance ‘abstract’ or ‘pure’ inasmuch as it refrains from taking sides–but in doing so it actually protects the already established machinery of discrimination.


马尔库塞认为,即使现状存在各种问题,人们也不愿做出改变,这就是所谓的“消极宽容”,而不带政治偏见地宽容左右两派(马尔库塞在这里把左派等同于人道,把右派等同与仇恨,注意这与当下美国左翼的相似之处),就是所谓的“积极宽容”,而这两种宽容都在维护现状。换句话说,马尔库塞在逼你站队,要么推翻现状,要么你就是问题的一部分。


他写道:


只有偏袒性的宽容,才能扩大自由的范围和内容——这意味着不宽容那些压抑的现状的维护者。问题仅仅在于不宽容的范围应该有多大。在英美这样稳定的自由社会,即便社会的公敌也拥有言论和集会自由,唯一的前提是他们不把言论转化成行为。


The tolerance which enlarged the range and content of freedom was always partisan–intolerant toward the protagonists of the repressive status quo. The issue was only the degree and extent of intolerance. In the firmly established liberal society of England and the United States, freedom of speech and assembly was granted even to the radical enemies of society, provided they did not make the transition from word to deed, from speech to action.


照马尔库塞的说法,要追求自由,就必须有所偏袒,自由就是我有自由,你没有自由,因为我是正义的好人,你是邪恶的坏蛋,好人自然应该被宽容,坏人自然不该被宽容。


接下来的一段是这样写的:


Relying on the effective background limitations imposed by its class structure, the society seemed to practice general tolerance. But liberalist theory had already placed an important condition on tolerance : it. was ‘to apply only to human beings in the maturity of their faculties’. John Stuart Mill does not only speak of children and minors; he elaborates: ‘Liberty, as a principle, has no application to any state of things anterior to the time when mankind have become capable of being improved by free and equal discussion.’ Anterior to that time, men may still be barbarians, and ‘despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians, provided the end be their improvement, and the means justified by actually effecting that end.’ Mill’s often-quoted words have a less familiar implication on which their meaning depends: the internal connection between liberty and truth. There is a sense in which truth is the end of liberty, and liberty must be defined and confined by truth. Now in what sense can liberty be for the sake of truth? Liberty is self-determination, autonomy–this is almost a tautology, but a tautology which results from a whole series of synthetic judgments. It stipulates the ability to determine one’s own life: to be able to determine what to do and what not to do, what to suffer and what not. But the subject of this autonomy is never the contingent, private individual as that which he actually is or happens to be; it is rather the individual as a human being who is capable of being free with the others. And the problem of making possible such a harmony between every individual liberty and the other is not that of finding a compromise between competitors, or between freedom and law, between general and individual interest, common and private welfare in an established society, but of creating the society in which man is no longer enslaved by institutions which vitiate self-determination from the beginning. In other words, freedom is still to be created even for the freest of the existing societies. And the direction in which it must be sought, and the institutional and cultural changes which may help to attain the goal are, at least in developed civilization, comprehensible, that is to say, they can be identified and projected, on the basis of experience, by human reason.


马尔库塞在这一段绕来绕去地说了很多,但他到底说了什么呢?他引了密尔的话,说一个自由的社会对人们也是有要求的,它要求人们能意识到自身的利益所在,知道自己到底想要什么,并且能够作为一个理性的个体追求自己的目标。但这只是问题的表面,事实上,包括马尔库塞在内的整个法兰克福学派都认为,在资本主义和自由主义秩序下,密尔所说的前提条件是不存在的,因为很多人都有着错误的觉悟(false consciousness)不知道自己的利益所在,甚至不知道自己是谁,当然也就不能与他人自由相处。马尔库塞说,自由主义社会和资本主义社会使群众以为自己是自由的,但他们其实是不自由的,因为他们受到了社会习俗的限制,受到了资本主义的束缚。要实现马尔库塞所说的自由,问题不在于怎样调和群己权界,调和个体于个体之间的关系,而在于如何推翻现有的机构和制度,打倒现存的社会,因为正是现存的社会阻止了(马尔库塞理想中)的自由变成现实,即(他理想中的)自由还有待创造。马尔库塞继续说,我们可以用理性指引自身的方向,然而他这里说的理性指的是马尔库塞自己的理性,我之前向大家介绍过批判理论相关的背景,对于像马尔库塞这样的新马克思主义者而言,只有马克思主义才称得上科学理性,其它都称不上,如果你采取的是某种冷静客观的态度,就会被唤作“实证论者”(positivist),而只有当你信奉了批判理论,把解放当作唯一的目标,这才算得上理性,所谓的human reason指得就是批判理论的那一套。


再读两段之后,我们将会结束第一部分,剩余的内容我们会在后面的部分展开说明。现在我们回到原文:


In the interplay of theory and practice, true and false solutions become distinguishable–never with the evidence of necessity, never as the positive, only with the certainty of a reasoned and reasonable chance, and with the persuasive force of the negative. For the true positive is the society of the future and therefore beyond definition arid determination, while the existing positive is that which must be surmounted. But the experience and understanding of the existent society may well be capable of identifying what is not conducive to a free and rational society, what impedes and distorts the possibilities of its creation. Freedom is liberation, a specific historical process in theory and practice, and as such it has its right and wrong, its truth and falsehood.


马尔库塞说,在当下的社会中,群众们所认为好的那些东西其实才是问题所在,群众真正应该追求的,是他说的“现已成为乌托邦幻想的历史可能”,这才是真正的好东西。认为群众们不明真相,不知道何为好坏,这就是新马克思主义者说的错误觉悟(false consciousness)。马尔库塞认为,普通人的日常行为都是在维护现有体制,而批判理论和压制的宽容的作用,就是破坏那些群众们所珍爱的东西。马尔库塞写道:“自由意味着解放,自由的理论与实践体现了一种特定的历史进程,自由也有着它的对与错,真与假。马尔库塞这里实际上是把新马克思主义当作了唯一正确的思维方式,把其它的一切都当成歪理邪说。


紧接着,他又说道:


“在这种划分中,概率的不确定性并不能消减历史的客观性,但是,它意味着思想自由和表达自由成为了通往自由之路的必要前提,它意味着宽容是必要的。然而,这种宽容并不是客观公正的,并不是没有偏袒的,不论是对于言语还是行为都是一样。这种宽容不应该保护那些与解放的可能性相抵触的错误言论和错误做法。不加偏袒的宽容只能适用于无害的辩论,对话,或学术讨论,它与科学研究和私人信条不可分割。但是,社会作为一个整体,却必须有所偏袒,因为存在的安宁以及自由和幸福本身都已经危在旦夕: 在这里,我们必须肃清某些言论,必须封杀某些思想,必须禁止某些提议,必须遏制某些行为。 否则宽容就成了延续奴役状态的工具。


The uncertainty of chance in this distinction does not cancel the historical objectivity, but it necessitates freedom of thought and expression as preconditions of finding the way to freedom–it necessitates tolerance. However, this tolerance cannot be indiscriminate and equal with respect to the contents of expression, neither in word nor in deed; it cannot protect false words and wrong deeds which demonstrate that they contradict and counteract the’ possibilities of liberation. Such indiscriminate tolerance is justified in harmless debates, in conversation, in academic discussion; it is indispensable in the scientific enterprise, in private religion. But society cannot be indiscriminate where the pacification of existence, where freedom and happiness themselves are at stake: here, certain things cannot be said, certain ideas cannot be expressed, certain policies cannot be proposed, certain behavior cannot be permitted without making tolerance an instrument for the continuation of servitude.


“宽容并不是客观公正的,并不是没有偏袒的,凡是妨碍了解放的错误言论都必须被封杀”,这听起来像不像是Twitter在今年年初做的:封杀一切和Maga和Qanon有关的账号,封杀一切他们眼中的“右翼阴谋论”?“妨碍了解放的错误言论”的范围可以很广,可以是些被贴上了种族主义标签的言论,也可以是那些被贴上了性别主义和恐同主义标签的言论,这里的正确与错误都是他们自己定的。 “社会作为一个整体,却必须有所偏袒,因为存在的安宁以及自由和幸福本身都已经危在旦夕”也就是说,假如某些言论给某些人造成了“心灵创伤”,让某些人“很伤心”,感觉“受到了压迫”,感到“被抹了除存在的意义”,就必须被封杀掉。客观公正是不行的,你必须选边站,必须帮助革命一方压倒反动的一方,因为“不是东风压倒西风,就是西风压倒东风”。所以马尔库塞说了 必须肃清某些言论,必须封杀某些思想,必须禁止某些提议,必须遏制某些行为。 这真是很讽刺,马尔库塞曾在中情局的前身工作,他很清楚纳粹有多么不宽容,可是现在他又和纳粹有什么区别呢?无非是忠诚的对象变成了新马克思主义而已。他的那一套愚蠢的理想根本就是无法实现的,即便如此,他还是说,作为一个知识分子,他有责任和义务去回忆和保存那些“现在已经成为乌托邦幻想的历史可能”,创造一个“没有恐惧和痛苦的世界”。马尔库塞以及像他这样的批判理论家以为,他们是真理的决断者,他们有权决定哪些是对的,哪些是错的,应该由他们规定哪些话能说,哪些话不能说;哪些事能做,哪些事不能做。哪怕是违法的行为,只要他们认为能做,那就是能做;哪怕是合法的行为,只要他们认为不能做,那就是不能做。这就是当前时代的逻辑,这就是我们所生活的美国。这也是为什么这篇文章十分重要。我希望借助我的解释,大家能明白这篇文章讲的到底是什么,也希望大家明白,在过去的几十年间,这篇文章变成了整个左翼的底层逻辑。你也许曾经听人说过,很多东西都在左转,而且一旦左转之后就再也回不来了,为什么会出现这种现象?道理很简单,凡是向左转的,就会受到最大限度的宽容;凡是向右转的,就会受到最大限度的不宽容。哪怕是暴乱和抢劫,只要它有利于左翼,也会受到宽容,连我们国家的副总统都在替暴乱分子辩护,要求将他们保释,说他们是在为正义而战,只要正义不实现,暴乱就不会停止,种族主义是比暴乱更大的问题,这就是“压制的宽容”的逻辑。


我们今天通读的,是这篇文章的第一部分,日后我希望能与大家共同完成剩余的部分。等你下次睁开双眼,仔细地审视我们所处的世界的时候,你会发现,这一逻辑无所不在。我一直告诉人们,首都事件不是最重要的,夏天的暴乱也并不是最重要的,这些事件中体现的不对称性,才是问题的实质。大家可以问一问自己,你能不能看到这一点?如果你能看到这一点,那么你是否知道它的根源何在?是否知道它错在哪里?你能否说清楚为什么我们需要真正的公平?为什么我们需要需要真正的宽容?为什么我们要像波普说的那样,捍卫真正的宽容,使其免受不宽容者的侵袭?如果你想明白了这些问题,那么你大概也就知道了自己的方向,明白自己要做什么了。

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